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200814620126王刚
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The U.S. presidential election campaign has entered a new phase, with both major party candidates criss-crossing the country in search of votes.
After ceding the week to John Kerry and the Democrats, President Bush got back out on the campaign trail Friday with a stop in Missouri, one of several key swing states in the November election.
Public opinion polls indicate more Americans believe Mr. Bush is better able to handle the threat of terrorism than Senator Kerry, and the president was quick to make that point on Friday.
"You see, you cannot talk sense to the terrorists," he said. "You cannot hope for the best. You cannot negotiate with them. We will engage those enemies around the world, so we do not have to face them here at home."
The president has begun a campaign swing through several so-called battleground states in the Midwest, including some of the same states that John Kerry will visit over the next several days.
At their convention, the Democrats and Senator Kerry made it clear that they will not back away from the security issue between now and the election on November 2.
"I defended this country as a young man, and I will defend it as president," he said. "Let there be no mistake, I will never hesitate to use force when required. Any attack will be met with a swift and certain response."
With the Democratic convention now over, attention will focus on the Republican convention scheduled for late August in New York City.
But before then, political analyst Jack Pitney of Claremont-McKenna College in California says, the newly-nominated Democratic ticket of John Kerry and John Edwards will hit the campaign trail, hoping to build on the momentum they picked up from their convention in Boston.
"You will see both Kerry and Edwards criss-cross the country, do a lot of traveling, a lot of campaign events," he said. "And you will see them getting endorsements from officials, and trying to stake out more specific positions on the issues. It is a bit of a danger there, because the more specific you get, the more you open yourself up to attack from the other side."
President Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney will also be making campaign swings through a number of key states before their convention begins.
Analyst Jack Pitney says the Democrats' generally positive tone at their convention could have an impact on the Republicans when they gather in New York.
"Well, first they need to get ready for a good convention," he said. "The Democrats had a pretty good convention, and Republicans need to maintain a positive tone at theirs. They need to stay out on the campaign trail, and hope that events on the international scene and the domestic economic scene work to their favor."
The general election campaign will begin in earnest after the Republican convention concludes on September 2. The next major events in the campaign cycle will come in late September and early October, when a series of debates will be held, three for the presidential contenders and one for the vice presidential candidates.
With polls showing the race very close, most experts believe the relatively small pool of undecided voters probably will not make up their minds until just before the election, making this year's debates a crucial stage in the election process.
After ceding the week to John Kerry and the Democrats, President Bush got back out on the campaign trail Friday with a stop in Missouri, one of several key swing states in the November election.
Public opinion polls indicate more Americans believe Mr. Bush is better able to handle the threat of terrorism than Senator Kerry, and the president was quick to make that point on Friday.
"You see, you cannot talk sense to the terrorists," he said. "You cannot hope for the best. You cannot negotiate with them. We will engage those enemies around the world, so we do not have to face them here at home."
The president has begun a campaign swing through several so-called battleground states in the Midwest, including some of the same states that John Kerry will visit over the next several days.
At their convention, the Democrats and Senator Kerry made it clear that they will not back away from the security issue between now and the election on November 2.
"I defended this country as a young man, and I will defend it as president," he said. "Let there be no mistake, I will never hesitate to use force when required. Any attack will be met with a swift and certain response."
With the Democratic convention now over, attention will focus on the Republican convention scheduled for late August in New York City.
But before then, political analyst Jack Pitney of Claremont-McKenna College in California says, the newly-nominated Democratic ticket of John Kerry and John Edwards will hit the campaign trail, hoping to build on the momentum they picked up from their convention in Boston.
"You will see both Kerry and Edwards criss-cross the country, do a lot of traveling, a lot of campaign events," he said. "And you will see them getting endorsements from officials, and trying to stake out more specific positions on the issues. It is a bit of a danger there, because the more specific you get, the more you open yourself up to attack from the other side."
President Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney will also be making campaign swings through a number of key states before their convention begins.
Analyst Jack Pitney says the Democrats' generally positive tone at their convention could have an impact on the Republicans when they gather in New York.
"Well, first they need to get ready for a good convention," he said. "The Democrats had a pretty good convention, and Republicans need to maintain a positive tone at theirs. They need to stay out on the campaign trail, and hope that events on the international scene and the domestic economic scene work to their favor."
The general election campaign will begin in earnest after the Republican convention concludes on September 2. The next major events in the campaign cycle will come in late September and early October, when a series of debates will be held, three for the presidential contenders and one for the vice presidential candidates.
With polls showing the race very close, most experts believe the relatively small pool of undecided voters probably will not make up their minds until just before the election, making this year's debates a crucial stage in the election process.
The U.S. presidential election campaign has entered a new phase, with both major party candidates criss-crossing the country in search of votes.
After ceding the week to John Kerry and the Democrats, President Bush got back out on the campaign trail Friday with a stop in Missouri, one of several key swing states in the November election.
Public opinion polls indicate more Americans believe Mr. Bush is better able to handle the threat of terrorism than Senator Kerry, and the president was quick to make that point on Friday.
"You see, you cannot talk sense to the terrorists," he said. "You cannot hope for the best. You cannot negotiate with them. We will engage those enemies around the world, so we do not have to face them here at home."
The president has begun a campaign swing through several so-called battleground states in the Midwest, including some of the same states that John Kerry will visit over the next several days.
At their convention, the Democrats and Senator Kerry made it clear that they will not back away from the security issue between now and the election on November 2.
"I defended this country as a young man, and I will defend it as president," he said. "Let there be no mistake, I will never hesitate to use force when required. Any attack will be met with a swift and certain response."
With the Democratic convention now over, attention will focus on the Republican convention scheduled for late August in New York City.
But before then, political analyst Jack Pitney of Claremont-McKenna College in California says, the newly-nominated Democratic ticket of John Kerry and John Edwards will hit the campaign trail, hoping to build on the momentum they picked up from their convention in Boston.
"You will see both Kerry and Edwards criss-cross the country, do a lot of traveling, a lot of campaign events," he said. "And you will see them getting endorsements from officials, and trying to stake out more specific positions on the issues. It is a bit of a danger there, because the more specific you get, the more you open yourself up to attack from the other side."
President Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney will also be making campaign swings through a number of key states before their convention begins.
Analyst Jack Pitney says the Democrats' generally positive tone at their convention could have an impact on the Republicans when they gather in New York.
"Well, first they need to get ready for a good convention," he said. "The Democrats had a pretty good convention, and Republicans need to maintain a positive tone at theirs. They need to stay out on the campaign trail, and hope that events on the international scene and the domestic economic scene work to their favor."
The general election campaign will begin in earnest after the Republican convention concludes on September 2. The next major events in the campaign cycle will come in late September and early October, when a series of debates will be held, three for the presidential contenders and one for the vice presidential candidates.
With polls showing the race very close, most experts believe the relatively small pool of undecided voters probably will not make up their minds until just before the election, making this year's debates a crucial stage in the election process.
After ceding the week to John Kerry and the Democrats, President Bush got back out on the campaign trail Friday with a stop in Missouri, one of several key swing states in the November election.
Public opinion polls indicate more Americans believe Mr. Bush is better able to handle the threat of terrorism than Senator Kerry, and the president was quick to make that point on Friday.
"You see, you cannot talk sense to the terrorists," he said. "You cannot hope for the best. You cannot negotiate with them. We will engage those enemies around the world, so we do not have to face them here at home."
The president has begun a campaign swing through several so-called battleground states in the Midwest, including some of the same states that John Kerry will visit over the next several days.
At their convention, the Democrats and Senator Kerry made it clear that they will not back away from the security issue between now and the election on November 2.
"I defended this country as a young man, and I will defend it as president," he said. "Let there be no mistake, I will never hesitate to use force when required. Any attack will be met with a swift and certain response."
With the Democratic convention now over, attention will focus on the Republican convention scheduled for late August in New York City.
But before then, political analyst Jack Pitney of Claremont-McKenna College in California says, the newly-nominated Democratic ticket of John Kerry and John Edwards will hit the campaign trail, hoping to build on the momentum they picked up from their convention in Boston.
"You will see both Kerry and Edwards criss-cross the country, do a lot of traveling, a lot of campaign events," he said. "And you will see them getting endorsements from officials, and trying to stake out more specific positions on the issues. It is a bit of a danger there, because the more specific you get, the more you open yourself up to attack from the other side."
President Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney will also be making campaign swings through a number of key states before their convention begins.
Analyst Jack Pitney says the Democrats' generally positive tone at their convention could have an impact on the Republicans when they gather in New York.
"Well, first they need to get ready for a good convention," he said. "The Democrats had a pretty good convention, and Republicans need to maintain a positive tone at theirs. They need to stay out on the campaign trail, and hope that events on the international scene and the domestic economic scene work to their favor."
The general election campaign will begin in earnest after the Republican convention concludes on September 2. The next major events in the campaign cycle will come in late September and early October, when a series of debates will be held, three for the presidential contenders and one for the vice presidential candidates.
With polls showing the race very close, most experts believe the relatively small pool of undecided voters probably will not make up their minds until just before the election, making this year's debates a crucial stage in the election process.
选举人团制度自1788年第一次实行以来，已经经历了200多年的发展与演变。
选举人团制度规定，美国总统由各州议会选出的选举人团选举产生，而不是由选民直接选举产生。美国各个州拥有的选举人票数目同该州在国会拥有的参众议员人数相等。根据规定，美国国会参议院由每个州选举出的2名议员组成，而众议院议员人数则根据各州人口比例来确定。因此，人口多的州产生的众议院议员人数就多，同时在总统选举时拥有的选举人票也多。
选举人团制度还规定，除了缅因和内布拉斯加两个州是按普选票得票比例分配选举人票外，其余48个州和华盛顿特区均实行“胜者全得”制度，即把本州的选举人票全部给予在该州获得相对多数普选票的总统候选人。由于各州选举人票的数量相差较多，这样就可能出现在全国普选中累计得票多的总统候选人不能赢得总统选举的情况。
选举人团制度规定，美国总统由各州议会选出的选举人团选举产生，而不是由选民直接选举产生。美国各个州拥有的选举人票数目同该州在国会拥有的参众议员人数相等。根据规定，美国国会参议院由每个州选举出的2名议员组成，而众议院议员人数则根据各州人口比例来确定。因此，人口多的州产生的众议院议员人数就多，同时在总统选举时拥有的选举人票也多。
选举人团制度还规定，除了缅因和内布拉斯加两个州是按普选票得票比例分配选举人票外，其余48个州和华盛顿特区均实行“胜者全得”制度，即把本州的选举人票全部给予在该州获得相对多数普选票的总统候选人。由于各州选举人票的数量相差较多，这样就可能出现在全国普选中累计得票多的总统候选人不能赢得总统选举的情况。
背景资料:美国大选程序
开跑阶段：初选
共和党没有人与布什争候选人位置，所以此次只有民主党会举行初选
民主党初选
经过重要的6个星期后，初选基本形势已定；但仍会有其他州陆续初选，直至6月8日
1月19日
党团会议首站：艾奥瓦
1月27日
初选首站：新罕布什尔
2月3日（小超级星期二）
初选：特拉华、密苏里、亚利桑那、俄克拉何马、南卡罗来纳；党团会议：新墨西哥、北达科他
2月6日至9日
海外民主党人推举人选
2月7、8日
党团会议：密歇根、华盛顿州、缅因
2月10、14、17、24日
初选：弗吉尼亚、田纳西、首都华盛顿、内华达、威斯康星、犹他；
党团会议：爱达荷
3月2日（超级星期二）
初选：加州、康涅狄格、佐治亚、马里兰、麻省、纽约、俄亥俄、罗德岛、佛蒙特；
党团会议：明尼苏达
各党提名大会
8月30日共和党大会
7月26至29日民主党大会
6月24至27日绿党大会
竞选最后冲刺
11月2日：总统选举日
贴子相关图片:
开跑阶段：初选
共和党没有人与布什争候选人位置，所以此次只有民主党会举行初选
民主党初选
经过重要的6个星期后，初选基本形势已定；但仍会有其他州陆续初选，直至6月8日
1月19日
党团会议首站：艾奥瓦
1月27日
初选首站：新罕布什尔
2月3日（小超级星期二）
初选：特拉华、密苏里、亚利桑那、俄克拉何马、南卡罗来纳；党团会议：新墨西哥、北达科他
2月6日至9日
海外民主党人推举人选
2月7、8日
党团会议：密歇根、华盛顿州、缅因
2月10、14、17、24日
初选：弗吉尼亚、田纳西、首都华盛顿、内华达、威斯康星、犹他；
党团会议：爱达荷
3月2日（超级星期二）
初选：加州、康涅狄格、佐治亚、马里兰、麻省、纽约、俄亥俄、罗德岛、佛蒙特；
党团会议：明尼苏达
各党提名大会
8月30日共和党大会
7月26至29日民主党大会
6月24至27日绿党大会
竞选最后冲刺
11月2日：总统选举日
贴子相关图片:
The Sun is a tabloid daily newspaper published in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland with the highest circulation of any daily English-language newspaper in the world, standing at 3,126,866 copies daily in October 2007 and with a daily readership of 7,909,000 in H1 2007. It reaches 2.9 million readers in the ABC1 demographic and 5.0 million in the C2DE demographic, compared to the 1.5 and 0.1 million respectively of its upmarket stablemate The Times. It is published by News Group Newspapers of News International, itself a subsidiary of Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation. [1][2]
In a 2007 meeting with the House of Lords Select Committee on Communications who were investigating media ownership and the news, Murdoch stated that he acts as a "traditional proprietor"; exercising editorial control on major issues such as which political party to back in a general election or policy on Europe.[
In a 2007 meeting with the House of Lords Select Committee on Communications who were investigating media ownership and the news, Murdoch stated that he acts as a "traditional proprietor"; exercising editorial control on major issues such as which political party to back in a general election or policy on Europe.[
中世纪印度，区域王国林立,强国控制弱国,小国依附大国,依附关系变化无常。一国之内,王权、政权、地权、赋税征收权的分散是印度封建制的特色,具体表现为藩臣关系的存在。小国国王依附大国就成为大国的藩臣。王室亲王和王国官员统称藩王(即萨曼塔—— Samanta)。国王授予藩臣土地。藩臣享有授予地上的占有权、征税权和统治权，义务是向国王缴纳定额赋税，并为国王供养定额的军队。农民向藩臣缴纳赋税，藩臣过着国王一般的生活。为了存在和扩张,小国力图成为大国,藩臣力图成为国王。兼并邻国和篡夺王位的事变时有发生。甚至农村公社也互相戒备。权力分散使得外力易于入主印度，也使得任何势力难于在印度建立中央集权。
8世纪初,戒日王统治下的卡瑙季王国衰落。国都曲女城被认为是北印度霸权的象征。为此,8世纪强盛起来的帕拉、普拉蒂哈拉、拉喜特拉库塔等三大王朝从770年起就开始进兵争夺曲女城。帕拉王朝的根据地在印度的东部和北部；普拉蒂哈拉王朝的根据地在印度的西部和北部；拉喜特拉库塔王朝的根据地在德干、印度的西部和南部的部分地区。曲女城多次易主,战争时起时息,持续约200年。（见拉杰普特）
中世纪任何强国如欲控制德干北部，必须同时占有东海岸和西海岸。因为德干高原的河流和通道一律由西向东，而且东海岸对东南亚具有比西海岸更密切的贸易关系，所以战争几乎不断发生于东海岸。遮娄其和帕拉瓦是德干高原上在7世纪强盛起来的国家。两国交战数百年，终于两败俱伤。
穆斯林的早期入侵 712年,穆罕默德·比因·卡西姆统率阿拉伯军队攻占达里巴尔,然后占领信德地区。不久被当地居民击退。1001～1024年，伽色尼王朝国王马赫穆德入侵印度达12次之多，吞并以拉合尔为中心的旁遮普地区。从此旁遮普成为穆斯林地区。12世纪后期,阿富□廓尔王朝控制西北印度。
德里苏丹时期（1206～1526） 1206年，廓尔王朝统治德里的总督库特布－乌德－丁·艾巴克自立为统治印度的苏丹，建立奴隶王朝，定都德里。从此开始了阿富□突厥人长达300多年的德里苏丹统治时期。其间经历奴隶、卡尔吉、图格鲁克、赛义德、洛迪5个王朝的统治。穆斯林入主印度,这在印度历史上还是第一次。在此以前，入侵印度的外族如拉杰普特、塞种人等都同化于印度,而且没有建立中央政权。苏丹王室和贵族由中亚和西亚各色种族、部族、氏族所组成。统治集团内部成分庞杂,派系倾轧频繁。统治阶级生活豪华。苏丹虽为中央政权,但并未统一印度。除短暂时期外，德里苏丹实质上不过是北印度一个最大的区域王国。尽管平原地区上不少印度教徒的高级首脑都已退位，但山林地区的拉杰普特首领并未完全投降。在平原上，也只有很少一部分土地受到苏丹的直接管辖，而大部分土地仍然在印度教徒的小领主和地主的控制之下。他们只向苏丹交纳一笔贡奉，并不按土地面积交纳田赋。即便在短暂时间内由苏丹直接征收田赋，但这种地区的范围也不很大。（见德里苏丹国）
除德干北端的省区政权外，苏丹在南印度的政权机构，都为时短暂。在14世纪上半期，苏丹政权就不得不撤出德干。接着印度教徒建立了维贾亚纳加尔王国，穆斯林建立了巴赫马尼王国。苏丹于15世纪初解体后，独立王国林立各地。
莫卧儿帝国时期（1526～1858） 莫卧儿帝国统治集团原是蒙古－突厥族后裔,16世纪上半期入主印度。最早的两代国王巴布尔和胡马雍(1530～1539,1555～1556 在位)没有严格实行伊斯兰的宗教统治。第三代国王阿克巴企图在行政制度上摆脱部落传统，融合区域王国势力加强中央政权。阿克巴强调王权高于宗教，宣布国王有权解释伊斯兰教义，禁止伊斯兰教职人员（乌力马）干预政治。他自称是印度教徒和穆斯林的公平君主。他在改进部落酋长制的基础上建立了曼萨布达尔制（见莫卧儿王朝）。这些措施曾经维持了伊斯兰朝廷与印度教贵族的和睦关系，稳定了中央政权。16世纪下半期版图得以扩大，除南印度外,东起阿萨姆,西至阿富□东陲均并入莫卧儿疆域，莫卧儿帝国成为当时世界强国之一。东方国家（波斯、奥斯曼、中亚诸国）承认它的强国地位。西方国家（葡萄牙、荷兰、英国、法国）尽力与其建立外交关系，通商谋利。沙·贾汉(1628～1658在位)提高田赋征额，从产量的1/3增至1/2。17世纪下半期奥朗则布加强伊斯兰的宗教统治，兼并战争多年不息，武力征服不可能消灭根深蒂固的区域王国和新兴的马拉特势力。 18世纪初实行赋税承包制（伊贾拉－ijarah）。因此出现了包税阶级，农民无力承受无限制的榨取，离乡逃税，或结帮反抗。府库空虚,中央财政濒于破产。1738～1739 年,波斯势力入侵北印度。1748～1767年期间,阿富□势力入印抢劫，帝国奄奄一息。1761年帝国统治范围缩小。 1764年被英军击败于布克萨尔。1803年德里一度被英军占领。1759～1858年，莫卧儿帝国名存实亡。英国在消灭了马拉特势力(1818)以后，于1858年印度民族大起义时正式灭亡了莫卧儿帝国。（见莫卧儿王朝）
8世纪初,戒日王统治下的卡瑙季王国衰落。国都曲女城被认为是北印度霸权的象征。为此,8世纪强盛起来的帕拉、普拉蒂哈拉、拉喜特拉库塔等三大王朝从770年起就开始进兵争夺曲女城。帕拉王朝的根据地在印度的东部和北部；普拉蒂哈拉王朝的根据地在印度的西部和北部；拉喜特拉库塔王朝的根据地在德干、印度的西部和南部的部分地区。曲女城多次易主,战争时起时息,持续约200年。（见拉杰普特）
中世纪任何强国如欲控制德干北部，必须同时占有东海岸和西海岸。因为德干高原的河流和通道一律由西向东，而且东海岸对东南亚具有比西海岸更密切的贸易关系，所以战争几乎不断发生于东海岸。遮娄其和帕拉瓦是德干高原上在7世纪强盛起来的国家。两国交战数百年，终于两败俱伤。
穆斯林的早期入侵 712年,穆罕默德·比因·卡西姆统率阿拉伯军队攻占达里巴尔,然后占领信德地区。不久被当地居民击退。1001～1024年，伽色尼王朝国王马赫穆德入侵印度达12次之多，吞并以拉合尔为中心的旁遮普地区。从此旁遮普成为穆斯林地区。12世纪后期,阿富□廓尔王朝控制西北印度。
德里苏丹时期（1206～1526） 1206年，廓尔王朝统治德里的总督库特布－乌德－丁·艾巴克自立为统治印度的苏丹，建立奴隶王朝，定都德里。从此开始了阿富□突厥人长达300多年的德里苏丹统治时期。其间经历奴隶、卡尔吉、图格鲁克、赛义德、洛迪5个王朝的统治。穆斯林入主印度,这在印度历史上还是第一次。在此以前，入侵印度的外族如拉杰普特、塞种人等都同化于印度,而且没有建立中央政权。苏丹王室和贵族由中亚和西亚各色种族、部族、氏族所组成。统治集团内部成分庞杂,派系倾轧频繁。统治阶级生活豪华。苏丹虽为中央政权,但并未统一印度。除短暂时期外，德里苏丹实质上不过是北印度一个最大的区域王国。尽管平原地区上不少印度教徒的高级首脑都已退位，但山林地区的拉杰普特首领并未完全投降。在平原上，也只有很少一部分土地受到苏丹的直接管辖，而大部分土地仍然在印度教徒的小领主和地主的控制之下。他们只向苏丹交纳一笔贡奉，并不按土地面积交纳田赋。即便在短暂时间内由苏丹直接征收田赋，但这种地区的范围也不很大。（见德里苏丹国）
除德干北端的省区政权外，苏丹在南印度的政权机构，都为时短暂。在14世纪上半期，苏丹政权就不得不撤出德干。接着印度教徒建立了维贾亚纳加尔王国，穆斯林建立了巴赫马尼王国。苏丹于15世纪初解体后，独立王国林立各地。
莫卧儿帝国时期（1526～1858） 莫卧儿帝国统治集团原是蒙古－突厥族后裔,16世纪上半期入主印度。最早的两代国王巴布尔和胡马雍(1530～1539,1555～1556 在位)没有严格实行伊斯兰的宗教统治。第三代国王阿克巴企图在行政制度上摆脱部落传统，融合区域王国势力加强中央政权。阿克巴强调王权高于宗教，宣布国王有权解释伊斯兰教义，禁止伊斯兰教职人员（乌力马）干预政治。他自称是印度教徒和穆斯林的公平君主。他在改进部落酋长制的基础上建立了曼萨布达尔制（见莫卧儿王朝）。这些措施曾经维持了伊斯兰朝廷与印度教贵族的和睦关系，稳定了中央政权。16世纪下半期版图得以扩大，除南印度外,东起阿萨姆,西至阿富□东陲均并入莫卧儿疆域，莫卧儿帝国成为当时世界强国之一。东方国家（波斯、奥斯曼、中亚诸国）承认它的强国地位。西方国家（葡萄牙、荷兰、英国、法国）尽力与其建立外交关系，通商谋利。沙·贾汉(1628～1658在位)提高田赋征额，从产量的1/3增至1/2。17世纪下半期奥朗则布加强伊斯兰的宗教统治，兼并战争多年不息，武力征服不可能消灭根深蒂固的区域王国和新兴的马拉特势力。 18世纪初实行赋税承包制（伊贾拉－ijarah）。因此出现了包税阶级，农民无力承受无限制的榨取，离乡逃税，或结帮反抗。府库空虚,中央财政濒于破产。1738～1739 年,波斯势力入侵北印度。1748～1767年期间,阿富□势力入印抢劫，帝国奄奄一息。1761年帝国统治范围缩小。 1764年被英军击败于布克萨尔。1803年德里一度被英军占领。1759～1858年，莫卧儿帝国名存实亡。英国在消灭了马拉特势力(1818)以后，于1858年印度民族大起义时正式灭亡了莫卧儿帝国。（见莫卧儿王朝）
马拉特政权是在莫卧儿衰落中萌发出来的一株民族国家的幼苗。这是一个非种姓的世俗政权。马拉特政权创建人曾经分配土地给农民耕种，反对军事采邑制－贾吉尔制和农村中间阶层。这些措施深受农民的拥护。马拉特军队纪律严明,军风朴素,各地农民多携械来归。马拉特军曾一度联合印度各方面的武装力量代表印度中央政权对英军作战(1780)。马拉特一直是英国殖民者不得不谨慎对待的劲敌。但是，在17、18世纪的印度，民族国家的条件还远未成熟。马拉特政权还不是一个完整的国家机构。西瓦吉家族（彭斯拉王朝）是马拉特政权的创始人，因为该家族不是婆罗门出身，所以徒有王室空名,没有实权。马拉特的帕什瓦是婆罗门出身的首相,从首任(1714)起,即掌握实权。重要将领各自建立王朝,如盖克瓦尔（1721年建）、辛地亚（1726年建）、霍尔卡尔（1728年建）都各有地盘，拥兵自卫。马拉特政权如此政出多门，恰好给英国以可乘之机。英国对马拉特进行过3次战争（1775～1782,1803～1805，1817～1818）。最后，英国利用马拉特自身的弱点，结束了帕什瓦政权 (1818)。其他政权以土邦的形式被保留到1947年。（见马拉特人）
莫卧儿末期的历史说明在印度区域王国的大地上民族国家的难产。莫卧儿王朝告终，接踵而来的是以资本主义为基础的殖民统治。由于殖民统治本身的需要，中世纪有些社会组织延长了寿命，阻碍了民族国家的形成和发展。 近代印度(1757～1947) 当殖民掠夺在资本主义破晓中出现的时候,印度的中世纪史尚未终结。从英国东印度公司的成立(1600)起到它在印度占有统治权时(1757)，有一段早期殖民掠夺史。这段历史在年代上属于印度中世纪末期，但它的时代性质则属于殖民统治的早期。
英国在印度的早期殖民掠夺（1600～1757） 中世纪末西方国家热慕印度的富庶，千方百计想到印度发财致富。发现好望角(1488)和绕过好望角直达印度西岸卡里卡特（1498）的都是葡萄牙人。他们收购印度的香料 (胡椒、生姜、肉桂、豆蔻)在西方销售，获得厚利。但葡萄牙国弱民贫，只能占领印度海口,不能深入内地,不能成为殖民主义强国。继之而起的是荷兰。荷兰商人垄断了香料贸易，抬高了产地收购价格，降低了西方的销售价格。1600年12月31日，英国为了同荷兰商人竞争而成立了英国东印度公司。英荷两国商人剑拔弩张，武装冲突一触即发。到了1623年，英荷才达成默契：荷兰垄断东印度群岛，英国垄断印度次大陆。
英国东印度公司在1609年续领特许状时,取得了5项特权:掠地铸币、筑城养兵、缔结盟约、宣战媾和、审理刑事民事案件。80年后,1689年孟加拉、马德拉斯、孟买3 个管区形成。1651年东印度公司被允许在胡格利通商(见彩图孟加拉胡格利港－葡、法、英殖民者先后在此建立商站）。1698年买下3个村子的包税权,实际上等于买下3个村子的领土,其中的一个村子就是加尔各答。后来，东印度公司的中心就从西海岸转移到孟加拉。在这个时期内东印度公司的活动主要是为建立政权准备条件。其中清除法国势力和培植亲英势力是主要因素。加尔各答原是偏僻荒村,从18世纪初起,商业开始繁荣。当地商人和钱商都大发横财，出现了一股强大的亲英势力。这股势力的存在为英国取得孟加拉政权创造了条件。普拉西战役(1757)开创了英国统治印度的时期。1765年东印度公司取得孟加拉、比哈尔、奥里萨的收税权，主宰了孟加拉。公司直接掌握了财政和军权，间接掌握了行政权。印籍人员负责办理事务，但无实权。史书称之为“双层统治”。当时，统治者是一伙强盗，人民深受痛苦。从 1772年起情况有所改变，但“双层统治”的格局却持续很久。过去，东印度公司要从英国拨款来印度购买货物运往国外销售。自从1765年以来，他们就用孟加拉的税收购买印度货物，运销国外，牟取厚利。但英国政府每年迫使东印度公司向政府交付40万英镑。当时英国殖民势力霸占市场，盛行强制买卖，生产者往往被迫按低于成本的价格出售自己的产品，因此英国大量收购印度货物并没有刺激印度的工业生产。
莫卧儿末期的历史说明在印度区域王国的大地上民族国家的难产。莫卧儿王朝告终，接踵而来的是以资本主义为基础的殖民统治。由于殖民统治本身的需要，中世纪有些社会组织延长了寿命，阻碍了民族国家的形成和发展。 近代印度(1757～1947) 当殖民掠夺在资本主义破晓中出现的时候,印度的中世纪史尚未终结。从英国东印度公司的成立(1600)起到它在印度占有统治权时(1757)，有一段早期殖民掠夺史。这段历史在年代上属于印度中世纪末期，但它的时代性质则属于殖民统治的早期。
英国在印度的早期殖民掠夺（1600～1757） 中世纪末西方国家热慕印度的富庶，千方百计想到印度发财致富。发现好望角(1488)和绕过好望角直达印度西岸卡里卡特（1498）的都是葡萄牙人。他们收购印度的香料 (胡椒、生姜、肉桂、豆蔻)在西方销售，获得厚利。但葡萄牙国弱民贫，只能占领印度海口,不能深入内地,不能成为殖民主义强国。继之而起的是荷兰。荷兰商人垄断了香料贸易，抬高了产地收购价格，降低了西方的销售价格。1600年12月31日，英国为了同荷兰商人竞争而成立了英国东印度公司。英荷两国商人剑拔弩张，武装冲突一触即发。到了1623年，英荷才达成默契：荷兰垄断东印度群岛，英国垄断印度次大陆。
英国东印度公司在1609年续领特许状时,取得了5项特权:掠地铸币、筑城养兵、缔结盟约、宣战媾和、审理刑事民事案件。80年后,1689年孟加拉、马德拉斯、孟买3 个管区形成。1651年东印度公司被允许在胡格利通商(见彩图孟加拉胡格利港－葡、法、英殖民者先后在此建立商站）。1698年买下3个村子的包税权,实际上等于买下3个村子的领土,其中的一个村子就是加尔各答。后来，东印度公司的中心就从西海岸转移到孟加拉。在这个时期内东印度公司的活动主要是为建立政权准备条件。其中清除法国势力和培植亲英势力是主要因素。加尔各答原是偏僻荒村,从18世纪初起,商业开始繁荣。当地商人和钱商都大发横财，出现了一股强大的亲英势力。这股势力的存在为英国取得孟加拉政权创造了条件。普拉西战役(1757)开创了英国统治印度的时期。1765年东印度公司取得孟加拉、比哈尔、奥里萨的收税权，主宰了孟加拉。公司直接掌握了财政和军权，间接掌握了行政权。印籍人员负责办理事务，但无实权。史书称之为“双层统治”。当时，统治者是一伙强盗，人民深受痛苦。从 1772年起情况有所改变，但“双层统治”的格局却持续很久。过去，东印度公司要从英国拨款来印度购买货物运往国外销售。自从1765年以来，他们就用孟加拉的税收购买印度货物，运销国外，牟取厚利。但英国政府每年迫使东印度公司向政府交付40万英镑。当时英国殖民势力霸占市场，盛行强制买卖，生产者往往被迫按低于成本的价格出售自己的产品，因此英国大量收购印度货物并没有刺激印度的工业生产。
