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在逻辑科学中是指分析、研究思维形式结构的方法。它把各种具有不同内容的思维形式(主要是命题和推理)加以比较,找出其中各个部分相互联结的方式,如命题中包含概念彼此间的联结,推理中则是各个命题之间的联结,抽取出它们共同的形式结构;再引入表达形式结构的符号语言,用符号与符号之间的联系表达命题或推理的形式结构。例如,把全称肯定命题,用符号形式化为“SAP”;把联言命题、假言命题分别形式化为:“p∧q、“p→q”。又例如:一个具体的假言联言推理“如果这种金属是纯铝,那么它的物理性质必与纯铝相同;如果这种金属是纯铝,那么它的化学性质必与纯铝相同;但这种金属的物理性质和化学性质与纯铝不相同;所以,它不是纯铝。”这个推理的形式结构是:“如果p,则q;如果p,则r;非q且非r;所以非p。”可进而形式化为下列公式:((p→q)∧(p→r)∧┐q∧┐r→┐p。
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比较
逻辑性名词形式1.横向比较：同类事物的相同属性在某时刻呈现的异同 例如：小明的学习成绩与小刚的学习成绩比较，小明比较好。2.纵向比较：同一事物的同一属性在不同时刻呈现的异同 例如：小明的学习成绩与去年比较，今年略有提升。原则比较要有供比较的对象，也要有比较的共同基础。【当2个人站在一起、两件物品放在一起的时候，我们自然会注意到他们之间有哪些相同之处，又有哪些不一样。这种判断两种事物之间共同点与不同点的方法就叫做比较。和它差不多意思的一种修辞手法是对比。】

in·volve (ĭn-vŏlv)Share: in·volvein·volvetr.v. in·volved, in·volv·ing, in·volves1.a. To have as a necessary feature or consequence; entail: was told that the job would involve travel.b. To relate to or affect: The matter is serious because it involves your reputation.c. To cause to burn; spread to: The blaze involved the house next door.2.a. To engage as a participant; embroil: The bystanders got involved in a dispute with the police.b. To show to be a participant; connect or implicate: evidence that involved the governor in the scandal.c. To engage (oneself) in a love affair: was involved with a colleague at work.3. To occupy or engage the interest of: a story that completely involved me for the rest of the evening.4. To wrap; envelop: a castle that was involved in mist.5. Archaic To wind or coil about.[Middle English involven, from Latin involvere, to enwrap : in-, in; see IN-2 + volvere, to roll, turn; see wel-2 in Indo-European roots.]in·volvement n.in·volver n.

思维形式，思维借以实现的形式。概念、判断、推理、证明是不同的思维形式。具有不同结构的判断形式、推理形式、证明形式也是不同的思维形式。在具体思维中，思维形式和思维内容总是结合在一起的，既不存在没有思维形式的思维内容，也不存在没有思维内容的思维形式。但是思维形式对于思维内容具有相对的独立性，所以逻辑学可以把思维形式抽出来作为自己的研究对象

思考源于主体对意向信息的加工。人之思考是自己心智对意向——信息内容的加工过程。任何思考的进行都是在联想——连锁反映中进行的推理与演算——信息内容的加工。如：相似联想、接近联想、对比联想、因果联想等等。人类将人之思维活动内在“程式”的运作方式，称之为：思考方法。如：1.形象法——通过图像的静态或动态对意向进行的加工。它具有视感效应。2.归纳法——是根据某一法则（概念、定理或公式）的推理与演算而进行的总结与综合。3.逆向法——是对意向进行的反归纳，也是一种有效的逻辑推理。4.移植法——在推理的过程中，加入新鲜的内容。5.聚合法——对新旧的信息内容进行捏造、扭曲与同化。6.水平法——多方面、多角度进行的聚合。7.垂直法——单方面或某一角度进行的归纳。8.发散法——根据已有的信息资料并沿着不同的方向对意向进行的推理与演算。演绎法——顺应某一架构进行的归纳。如：按照一定的时间、路程、思想或观念来归纳等等。

制订假期学习计划要讲究以下几个原则。 第一，制订的计划绝对不要勉强，这是制订计划时最重要的原则。好高骛远、制订超出自己能力范围的计划是最快让珍贵的假期泡汤的方法。 第三章：假期高效学习的原则（4） 放松一下，想想“我能做什么”，而不是“我应该做什么”。只把那些自己能做到的列入计划中，如果按照你制订的计划学习完之后还有时间和精力，那时候就可以根据自己的心情查缺补漏或者休息了。 如果好高骛远，假期制订的计划过于紧密，日后一旦不能完成，整个假期的计划都会被打乱。只能重新制订计划，没有什么比那个更讨厌、更让人自信心受挫了。回头想想自己到目前为止的学习状况，思考一下自己一天能学多少，然后将比自己最大承受能力稍微少一些的量定为一天的学习量，这样计划才不会被打乱。 提个参考意见：如果再把第一章中讲到的写学习日志的习惯也加进去，一定会有很大的帮助。其实大部分的学生都只注意自己应该学什么，而不太在乎自己究竟能学多少。如果养成了把每天的学习量都详细记录下来的习惯，就能客观地把握自身的能力，避免在日后制订不恰当的计划。 第二，不要制订时间表。自己一个人学习的时候，会过分地制订出那种密密麻麻的“按小时学习的计划表”，规定自己从几点到几点学习哪个单元，或者做多少题等。不知道为什么，制订出那种计划表之后就会很安心，感觉很好。因为它让人觉得只要按照这个计划去做，真的就能实现些什么。但仅此而已。等到第二天仔细再看一遍那个计划表，也许你会长叹一口气，对学习感到厌烦，无法按照这个详细的计划表去做。 制订计划的时候最好是给未来的自己多一些自由，只要把一天的时间三等分，分成早中晚就足够了。把计划定成“上午做数学题，下午学英语语法，晚上读书或者上网听网络课程”，剩下的操作就交给未来要学习的自己。那样学习起来才能轻松，执行计划的概率也会提高。 第三，为计划搁置作好准备。你认为自己制订了恰当的计划，没有超出自己的能力范围，但是实际学习起来，却发现经常很难按照计划去执行。那有可能是你没能准确把握自身的能力水平，也有可能是因为出现了突发状况，类似去牙科看牙之类的。 不管怎么说，每当计划搁置的时候再重新制订都是相当困难的，不仅浪费时间，还打击人的信心。所以提前为计划的搁置作好准备是十分必要的——主要是利用周末，在周末另外确定一个时间补上落下的学习内容。 让我们来举个例子。下面的表格显示了一周的计划内容。周日是空的，这是这个表的重点。

1The New York TimesSeptember 4, 2010A Course Load for the Game of LifeBy N. GREGORY MANKIWAS a Harvard professor who teaches introductory economics, I have thedelightful assignment of greeting about 700 first-year students every fall.And this year, I am sending the first of my own children off to college.Which raises these questions: What should they be learning? And whatkind of foundation is needed to understand and be prepared for the moderneconomy?Here is my advice for students of all ages:LEARN SOME ECONOMICS You knew this was coming. Perhaps I amjust trying to protect my profession’s market share, but I hope it is morethan that.The great economist Alfred Marshall called economics “the study ofmankind in the ordinary business of life.” When students leave school, “theordinary business of life” will be their most pressing concern. If the currentmoribund economy turns into a lost decade, as some economists fear itmight, it will be crucial to be prepared for it.There may be no better place than a course in introductory economics. Ithelps students understand the whirlwind of forces swirling around them. Itdevelops rigorous analytic skills that are useful in a wide range of jobs. Andit makes students better citizens, ready to evaluate the claims of competingpoliticians.For those who have left college behind, it is not too late to learn. Pick up aneconomics textbook (mine would be a fine choice), and you might findyourself learning more than you imagined.2Not convinced? Even if you are a skeptic of my field, as many are, there isanother, more cynical reason to study it. As the economist Joan Robinsononce noted, one purpose of studying economics is to avoid being fooled byeconomists.LEARN SOME STATISTICS High school mathematics curriculumsspend too much time on traditional topics like Euclidean geometry andtrigonometry. For a typical person, these are useful intellectual exercisesbut have little applicability to daily life. Students would be better served bylearning more about probability and statistics.One thing the modern computer age has given everyone is data. Lots andlots of data. There is a large leap, however, between having data andlearning from it. Students need to know the potential of number-crunching,as well as its limitations. All college students are well advised to take one ormore courses in statistics, at least until high schools update what theyteach.LEARN SOME FINANCE With the rise of 401(k) plans and the loomingproblems with Social Security, Americans are increasingly in charge of theirown financial future. But are they up to the task?Few high school students graduate with the tools needed to make smartchoices. Indeed, many enter college without knowing, for instance, whatstocks and bonds are, what risks and returns these assets offer, and howbest to manage those risks.The evidence of financial naïveté shows up every time some company goesbelly up. Whether it is Enron or Lehman Brothers, many companyemployees are often caught with a large fraction of their wealth in a singlestock. They fail to heed the most basic lesson of finance — thatdiversification provides a free lunch. It reduces risk without loweringexpected return.College is an investment with a great return. The gap between the wages ofcollege graduates and those with only high school diplomas is now large byhistorical standards. If those college grads are going to manage their3earnings intelligently, they need to study the fundamentals of financialdecision making.LEARN SOME PSYCHOLOGY Economists like me often pretend thatpeople are rational. That is, with mathematical precision, people areassumed to do the best they can to achieve their goals.For many purposes, this approach is useful. But it is only one way to viewhuman behavior. A bit of psychology is a useful antidote to an excess ofclassical economics. It reveals flaws in human rationality, including yourown.This is one lesson I failed to heed when I was in college. I never took asingle psychology course as an undergrad. But after the birth of behavioraleconomics, which infuses psychology into economics, I remedied thatmistake. Several years ago, as a Harvard faculty member, I audited anintroductory psychology course taught by Steven Pinker. I don’t know if itmade me a better economist. But it has surely made me a more humble one,and, I suspect, a better human being as well.IGNORE ADVICE AS YOU SEE FIT Adults of all stripes have advice forthe college-bound. Those leaving home and starting their freshman yearshould listen to it, consider it, reflect on it but ultimately follow their owninstincts and passions.The one certain thing about the future is that it is far from certain. I don’tknow what emerging industries will be attracting college graduates fouryears from now, and neither does anyone else. The next generation willshape its own economy, as the young Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerbergshaped ours. Those now packing up their clothes, buying textbooks andmeeting roommates hold the future in their hands. Every year, when I lookout over my 700 eager freshmen on that first day of class, the view gives meoptimism about the path ahead.